This article is missing information about Śvetāmbara monastic and layperson practices, festivals, temples, icons, monasteries, bhandaras, differences with Digambara. Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (December 2019) |
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The Śvetāmbara (/ʃwɛˈtʌmbərə/; also spelled Shwetambara, Shvetambara, Svetambara or Swetambar) is one of the two main branches of Jainism, the other being the Digambara. Śvetāmbara in Sanskrit means "white-clad", and refers to its ascetics' practice of wearing white clothes, which sets it apart from the Digambara or "sky-clad" Jains whose ascetic practitioners go nude. Śvetāmbaras do not believe that ascetics must practice nudity.
The Śvetāmbara and Digambara traditions have had historical differences ranging from their dress code, their temples and iconography, attitude towards Jain nuns, their legends and the texts they consider as important. Śvetāmbara Jain communities are currently found mainly in Gujarat, Rajasthan and coastal regions of Maharashtra. According to Jeffery D. Long, a scholar of Hindu and Jain studies, about four-fifths of all Jains in India are Śvetāmbaras.
Śvetāmbaras consider themselves to be the original followers of Mahavira and that the Digambara sect emerged in 82 AD as a result of a rebellion by a monk named Sivabhuti, who was the disciple of Arya Krishnasuri. This account is found in 5th century Śvetāmbara text Avashyak Bhashya written by Jinabhadra. This is also the earliest formal recognition of the schism between the two sects.
Śvetāmbaras have several pattavalis that mention the historical lineage of their chief monks (acharya) beginning with the 24th Tirthankara Mahavira. The most popular of the pattavalis is the one mentioned in the Kalpa Sūtra, a canonical scripture of the Śvetāmbaras. According to the lineage mentioned in the Kalpa Sūtra, Sthulabhadra was, unequivocally, the successor of Bhadrabāhu. Śvetāmbaras also believe that both of them were white-clad monks. These beliefs are completely rejected by the Digambara sect.
To manage the large following of the murtipujaka sect, Gacchas (administrative sub-divisions) were created. Each gaccha has its own pattavali. One of the 84 gacchas was the Upkesa Gaccha. While all other pattavalis (including the one mentioned in the Kalpa Sūtra) trace their lineage to the 24th Tirthankara Mahavira, Upkesa Gaccha's pattavali traces its lineage to the 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha. Kesiswami, one of Parshvanatha's chief disciples, Acharya Ratnaprabhasuri, the founder of the Oswal community as well as Acharya Swayamprabhasuri, the founder of the Porwal community belonged to this gaccha. It was in existence until 1930s when it went extinct.
Śvetāmbara literature can be classified into two major categories — canonical and non-canonical. Canonical scriptures state the Jain cosmology and the Jain philosophy as well as the foundational aspects of understanding Jainism. They also govern the conduct of monks, nuns, as well as the laity. Non-canonical scriptures include, but are not limited to commentaries on canonical scriptures, biographies of the Śalākāpuruṣas (as in Hemachandra's Trisasti-shalakapurusa-caritra), Jain mythology, treatise and extensions of the canonical scriptures, lists of rare and uncommon words and knowledge base and dictionaries for Ardhamagadhi Prakrit, Maharashtri Prakrit, and Sanskrit, devotional hymns (stavan, stuti, sajjhay, or mantra), and miscellaneous scriptures.
The Śvetāmbara canon consists of 45 scriptures, mostly written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit. They are considered to be what is left of Mahavira's teachings. Historically, the knowledge of these scriptures was passed down orally in a preceptor-disciple system (guru-shishya parampara). However, the memory of the monks weakened in the 12-year long famine as described in the Kalpa Sūtra. As a result, most of the knowledge of the canonical scriptures was lost. The remaining canon was codified at the Great Council of Vallabhi under leadership of Devardhigani Kshamashramana, which was held at Vallabhi in 454 CE resulting in the 45 scriptures that govern the Śvetāmbara sect's religious practices till date.
From a linguistic point of view, Śvetāmbara canonical scriptures are the oldest of all Jain literature. The Acharanga Sutra, Uttaradhyayana Sutra, and the Sthananga Sutra of the Śvetāmbara canon are considered to have been created in 5th-4th century BC. Following is a list of the 45 canonical scriptures followed by the Śvetāmbaras: -
The above list makes it 46, but the last angā Driśtivāda is considered to be lost by both the sects. It was this scripture that contained the 14 purvas (14 scriptures containing extensive knowledge) of Jainism.
All texts or pieces of literature written by Śvetāmbara monks, except the ones stated above are considered to be non-canonical in nature. Following are some popular examples. However, the complete list is inexhaustive as the Śvetāmbara sect has always had more monks than the Digambara sect: -
There are vast differences between the practices of the Śvetāmbaras and the Digambaras with some fundamental overlaps. Śvetāmbara scriptures divide the Jain Sangha into four parts and the congregation is popularly known as the chaturvidha sangha (a sangha comprising four parts). The four parts are — monks, nuns, male lay followers (also known as śrāvakas), and female lay followers (also known as śrāvikās). Religious practices of the Śvetāmbara sect differ for each section of the sangha.
Right before initiation, an ascetic-to-be performs his/her final puja of the Tirthankara idols. Monks and nuns are not permitted to perform puja of the idols because they are not permitted to bath all their life and Śvetāmbara scriptures only permit a person with clean body and after bathing may perform puja of the idols. Ceremonious donation of all world possessions is performed before initiation.
InitiationUpon initiation, a monk or a nun renounces all worldly possessions and relations, takes the Five Vows and tears his/her hair out. A newly-initiated monk/nun is ceremoniously given the rajoharan by their preceptor (who is always only an acharya). Unlike as in the Digambara sect, monks and nuns do not touch persons of the opposite gender and observe extreme celibacy all their life.
Monastic Possessions (Āvaśyakas)Monks and nuns of the Śvetāmbara sect wear white seamless clothing and carry a rajoharan (woolen broom to clear their path of insects and small creatures), an alms bowl, a long stick, and scriptures. All monks and nuns possess only these objects. Additionally, they may only take what is given to them and what comes under permitted possessions (the objects listed earlier). They are not permitted to take anything that is not given to them by the owner of the said object.
A 1st- to 2nd–century CE water tank relief panel showing two ardhaphalaka Jain monks carrying colapatta cloth on their left hand found in the ruins of Mathura (Brooklyn Museum 87.188.5). This cloth carrying tradition to cover genitalia by ancient Jain monks in principle resembles the beliefs of the Śvetāmbara and now extinct Yapaniya subtradition. Begging for AlmsUnlike ascetics of the Digambara sect, ascetics of the Śvetāmbara sect beg for alms from multiple households as the Acharanga Sutra describes how begging for alms for an entire meal from a single household does not fall under fault-free food that Jain monks must consume as it might aggrieve the householder they accept food from. Becoming the medium for a householder's grievance is unacceptable as per a mendicant's conduct. 42 faults of food are described which a monk or a nun must assess before accepting it as alms. They may only consume food free from the 42 faults (as described in the Acharanga Sutra) and boiled water between the period from 48 minutes after sunrise and until 48 minutes before sunset.
WanderingMendicants constantly wander for 8 months of a year (except the 4 months of the chaturmasya) on foot. The reason mendicants must wander is to regulate their senses of possession and to spread the word of Jainism. The Acharanga Sutra describes that for a mendicant, staying at one place for a period extending more than 1 month is not permitted. The reason for that is to regulate possession. A mendicant staying at one place for longer periods of time might begin getting attached to the place and such attachments must be avoided and if developed, given up. However, during the 4 months of the chaturmasya, rains are expected and there is an increase in the number of insects on ground. Mendicants must not step on insects to practice ahimsa and therefore, they are required to stay at one place for those 4 months. Stepping on grass and on water or wet ground is not permitted due to their tendency to have life. Most mendicants give religious sermons and spread the word of Jainism wherever they wander.
Majority of the Śvetāmbaras are murtipujakas, that is they actively offer devotional puja in temples, worship before the images or idols of Tirthankaras and important Jain demi-gods and demi-goddesses. Historically, this is the oldest sub-tradition of the Śvetāmbaras and all other aniconic sects have emerged in and after the 14th century.
The Śvetāmbara murtipujaka (idol-worshipping) sect is the largest of all sects and sub-sects of Jainism and has the most number of followers as well as monks. To manage the large following, gacchas (administrative sub-divisions) were created. 84 gacchas have come into existence till date and most of them are extinct now. Only 4 survive - Tapa Gaccha, Kharatara Gaccha, Parshvachandra Gaccha, and Achal Gaccha. Of these, Tapa Gaccha is the largest, with the most monks and followers.
The murtipujaka sect has had various eminent monks, including, but not limited to Vimalsuri, Hemachandra, Hiravijaya, Devardhigani Kshamashraman, Yashovijaya, Anandghan, Siddhasena, and Manatunga.
The rest are split into various sub-traditions where either Jain temples and halls are built but puja is minor, or where all construction and use of temples, images and idols is actively discouraged and avoided. These sub-traditions began around 14th-century through 18th-century.
A layman who opposed devotional temples, images and idols was Lonka Shah (c. 1476 CE) who is responsible for starting the Sthānakavāsī sub-tradition. Bhikshu was initiated as a Sthānakavāsī monk, but he believed that their teachings were inappropriate. As a result, he started the Terapanth sub-tradition after criticizing the Sthanakvasi sub-tradition's beliefs. Early colonial era observers and some early 20th-century Jain writers such as Malvaniya hypothesized that this movement against idol worship may be the impact of Islam on Jainism, but later scholarship states that the sub-traditions arose from an internal dispute and debate on the principle Ahimsa (non-violence). The newer sub-traditions only accept 32 of the 45 scriptures of the original Śvetāmbara canon. In the 32 they have accepted, several points have been modified and a major portion of their canon is different from the original canon.
These sub-traditions are not recognized by the original Śvetāmbara sect of the idol-worshippers, who argue that they were created as a result of a grave misinterpretation of canonical scriptures. The murtipujaka Śvetāmbaras do not allow laypersons to read scriptures as a misinterpretation of the canon is considered to be a sin. The later sub-traditions have made their canon openly accessible. Both the newer sub-traditions have various sub-traditions within them that do not agree on several aspects of the canon.
Other than rejecting or accepting different ancient Jain texts, Digambaras and Śvetāmbara differ in other significant ways such as:
Śvetāmbaras believe that Parshvanatha, the 23rd tirthankara, taught only Four restraints (a claim, scholars say is confirmed by the ancient Buddhist texts that discuss Jain monastic life). Mahāvīra taught Five vows. The Digambara sect disagrees with the Śvetāmbara interpretations, and reject the theory of difference in Parshvanatha and Mahāvīra's teachings. However, Digambaras as well as Śvetāmbaras follow Five vows as taught by Mahavira. The difference is only that Śvetāmbaras believe Parshvanatha taught one vow less (the Four vows except Brahmacharya) than Mahavira. However, monks of Śvetāmbara sect also follow all 5 vows as stated in the Acharanga Sutra.
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