Palmyrene Empire
The Palmyrene Empire was a short-lived breakaway state from the Roman Empire resulting from the Crisis of the Third Century. Named after its capital city, Palmyra, it encompassed the Roman provinces of Syria Palaestina, Arabia Petraea, and Egypt, as well as large parts of Asia Minor.
The Palmyrene Empire was ruled by Queen Zenobia, officially as regent for her son Vaballathus, who inherited the throne in 267 at age ten. In 270, Zenobia rapidly conquered most of the Roman east, attempting to maintain relations with Rome as a legitimate power. In 271, she claimed the imperial title for both herself and her son, fighting a short war with the Roman emperor Aurelian, who conquered Palmyra and captured Zenobia. A year later the Palmyrenes rebelled, which led Aurelian to raze Palmyra.
Despite its brief existence, the Palmyrene Empire is remembered for having been ruled by one of the most ambitious and powerful women in antiquity. It is also hailed in Syria, where it plays an important role as an icon in Syrian nationalism.
Background
Following the murder of Roman emperor Alexander Severus in 235, general after general squabbled over control of the empire, the frontiers were neglected and subjected to frequent raids by Carpians, Goths and Alemanni, in addition to outright attacks from the aggressive Sassanids in the east. Finally, Shapur I of Persia inflicted a disastrous defeat upon the Romans at the Battle of Edessa in 260, capturing the Roman emperor Valerian and soon, Quietus and Macrianus rebelled against Valerian's son Gallienus and usurped the imperial power in Syria.
The Palmyrene leader Odaenathus was declared king, and remained nominally loyal to Gallienus, forming an army of Palmyrenes and Syrian peasants to attack Shapur. In 260, Odaenathus won a decisive victory over Shapur in a battle near the Euphrates. Next, Odaenathus defeated the usurpers in 261, and spent the remainder of his reign fighting the Persians. Odaenathus received the title Governor of the East, and ruled Syria as the imperial representative, and declared himself King of Kings. Odaenathus was assassinated along with his son Hairan in 267; according to Joannes Zonaras and the Historia Augusta, he was killed by his cousin, whose name is given by the latter source as Maeonius. The Historia Augusta also claims that Maeonius was proclaimed emperor for a very brief period, before being executed by the soldiers. No inscriptions or other evidence exist for Maeonius' reign, and he was probably killed immediately after assassinating Odaenathus.
Odaenathus was succeeded by his minor son, the ten-year-old Vaballathus, under the regency of Zenobia. Vaballathus was kept in the shadow while his mother assumed actual rule and consolidated her power. The queen was careful not to provoke Rome and took for herself and her son the titles that her husband had, while working on guaranteeing the safety of the borders with Persia, and pacifying the dangerous Tanukhid tribes in Hauran.
Establishment
Vaballathus (right) as king on the obverse of an
Antoninianus. To the left, Aurelian as Augustus on the reverse.
Zenobia started an expedition against the Tanukhids in the spring of 270, during the reign of emperor Claudius Gothicus aided by her generals, Septimius Zabbai (a general of the army) and Septimius Zabdas (the chief general of the army).
Zabdas sacked Bosra, killed the Roman governor, and marched south securing Roman Arabia. According to the Persian geographer Ibn Khordadbeh, Zenobia herself attacked Dumat Al-Jandal but could not conquer its castle. However, Ibn Khordadbeh is confusing Zenobia with al-Zabbā, a semi-legendary Arab queen whose story is often confused with Zenobia's story.
In October of 270, a Palmyrene army of 70,000 invaded Egypt, and declared Zenobia queen of Egypt. The Roman general Tenagino Probus was able to regain Alexandria in November, but was defeated and escaped to the fortress of Babylon, where he was besieged and committed suicide after being captured by Zabdas, who continued his march south and secured Egypt. Afterward, in 271, Zabbai started the operations in Asia Minor, and was joined by Zabdas in the spring of that year. The Palmyrenes subdued Galatia, and occupied Ancyra, marking the greatest extent of the Palmyrene expansion. However, the attempts to conquer Chalcedon were unsuccessful.
The Palmyrene conquests were done under the protective show of subordination to Rome. Zenobia issued coinage in the name of Claudius' successor Aurelian with Vaballathus depicted as king, while the emperor allowed the Palmyrene coinage and conferred the Palmyrene royal titles. However, toward the end of 271, Vaballathus took the title of Augustus along with his mother.
Reconquest by Rome
Vaballathus as Augustus, on the obverse of an Antoninianus.
Zenobia as Augusta, on the obverse of an Antoninianus.
Aurelian-Zenobia war.
In 272, Aurelian crossed the Bosphorus and advanced quickly through Anatolia. According to one account, Marcus Aurelius Probus regained Egypt from Palmyra, while the emperor continued his march and reached Tyana. The fall of Tyana lent itself to a legend; Aurelian to that point had destroyed every city that resisted him, but he spared Tyana after having a vision of the great philosopher Apollonius of Tyana, whom he respected greatly, in a dream. Apollonius implored him, stating: "Aurelian, if you desire to rule, abstain from the blood of the innocent! Aurelian, if you will conquer, be merciful!". Whatever the reason for his clemency, Aurelian's sparing of Tyana paid off; many more cities submitted to him upon seeing that the emperor would not exact revenge upon them.
Entering Issus and heading to Antioch, Aurelian defeated Zenobia in the Battle of Immae. Zenobia retreated to Antioch then fled to Emesa while Aurelian advanced and took the former. After regrouping, the Romans first destroyed a Palmyrene garrison stationed at the fort of Daphne, and headed south to Apamea, then continued to Emesa and defeated Zenobia again at the Battle of Emesa, forcing her to evacuate to the capital. Aurelian marched through the desert and was harassed by Bedouins loyal to Palmyra, but as soon as he arrived at the city gates, he negotiated with the Bedouins, who betrayed Palmyra and supplied the Roman army with water and food. Aurelian besieged Palmyra in the summer of 272, and tried to negotiate with Zenobia, on the condition that she surrender herself in person to him, to which she answered with refusal. The Romans tried to breach the city defenses several times but were repelled, however, as the situation deteriorated, Zenobia left the city and headed east to ask the Persians for help. The Romans followed the empress, captured her near the Euphrates and brought her back to the emperor. Soon after, the Palmyrene citizens asked for peace, and the city capitulated.
Aftermath
Aurelian, personification of
Sol, defeats the Palmyrene Empire, and celebrates ORIENS AVG, the Augustus Rising Sun.
Aurelian spared the city and stationed a garrison of 600 archers led by a certain Sandarion, as a peacekeeping force. The defenses were destroyed and most of the military equipment was confiscated. Zenobia and her council were taken to Emesa and put on trial. Most of the high-ranking Palmyrene officials were executed, while Zenobia's and Vaballathus's fates are uncertain.
In 273, Palmyra rebelled under the leadership of a citizen named Septimius Apsaios, and contacted the Roman prefect of Mesopotamia, Marcellinus, offering to help him usurp the imperial power. Marcellinus delayed the negotiations and sent word to the Roman emperor, while the rebels lost their patience and declared a relative of Zenobia named Antiochus as Augustus. Aurelian marched against Palmyra and was helped by a Palmyrene faction from inside the city, headed by a man with a senatorial rank named Septimius Haddudan.
Aurelian spared Antiochus, but razed Palmyra. The most valuable monuments were taken by the emperor to decorate his Temple of Sol, while buildings were smashed, people were clubbed and cudgeled and Palmyra's holiest temple pillaged.
Evaluation and legacy
The ultimate motive behind the revolt is debated; when dealing with the rise of Palmyra and the rebellion of Zenobia, historians most often interpreted the ascendancy as an indication of cultural, ethnic or social factors. Andreas Alföldi viewed the rebellion as a completely native ethnic opposition against Rome. Irfan Shahîd considered Zenobia's revolt a pan-Arab movement that was a forerunner of the Arab expansion of the Caliphates; an opinion shared by Franz Altheim, and an almost universal view amongst Arab and Syrian scholars such as Philip Khuri Hitti. Mark Whittow disagreed that the revolt was ethnic in its nature and emphasized that it was a reaction to the weakness of Rome and its inability to protect Palmyra from the Persians. Warwick Ball viewed the rebellion as aimed at Rome's throne, not just Palmyrene independence. Vaballathus' inscriptions indicated the style of a Roman emperor; according to Ball, Zenobia and Vaballathus were contenders for the Roman imperial throne, following a plan similar to that of Vespasian, who ascended the throne after building his power-base in Syria. Andrew M. Smith II considered the revolt as a bid for both independence and the Roman throne. The Palmyrene royalty used Eastern titles such as king of kings, which had no relevance in Roman politics, while the conquests were in the interest of Palmyrene commerce. Finally, it was only in the last regnal year of Zenobia and Vaballathus that the Roman imperial rank was claimed. Fergus Millar, although tending toward the view that it was not only an independence movement, believes there is not yet enough evidence to draw a conclusion on the nature of Palmyra's revolt.
During the mid-twentieth century, interest in the Palmyrene Empire was briefly revived by the advent of Syrian nationalism. Modern Syrian nationalists viewed the empire as a uniquely Syrian civilization which attempted to liberate the masses of the Levant from Roman tyranny. A Syrian TV show was produced based on Zenobia's life, and she was the subject of a biography written by Syria's former minister of defense Mustafa Tlass.
See also
Notes
- ^ Alexandria was the second largest city in the Roman Empire (after Rome itself), with a population of around 500,000–600,000, during the principate. The population of Palmyra in the middle of the 3rd century is estimated to have been 150,000–200,000.
- ^ No evidence exists for Roman units serving in the ranks of Odaenathus; whether Roman soldiers fought under Odaenathus or not is a matter of speculation.
- ^ The first decisive evidence for the use of this title for Odaenathus is an inscription dated to 271, posthumously describing Odaenathus as king of kings. Odaenathus' son Hairan I is directly attested as "King of Kings" during his lifetime. Hairan I was proclaimed by his father as co-ruler; it is unlikely that Odaenathus was simply a king while his son held the King of Kings title.
- ^ Claudius died in August 270, shortly before Zenobia's invasion of Egypt.
- ^ All other accounts indicate that a military action was not necessary, as it seems that Zenobia had withdrawn her forces in order to defend Syria.
- ^ Daphne was a garden located six miles south of Antioch.
References
- ^ Vagi, David L. (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, C. 82 B.C.--A.D. 480: History. Taylor & Francis. p. 398. ISBN 978-1-57958-316-3.
- ^ Koester, Helmut (2012). History and Literature of Early Christianity. Walter de Gruyter. p. 225. ISBN 9783110812657.
- ^ Delia, Diana (1988). "The Population of Roman Alexandria". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 118: 275–292. doi:10.2307/284172. JSTOR 284172.
- ^ "Rise and fall of Palmyra, Syria". Bulletin of the Department of Geography of University of Tokyo. 27: 9. 1995.
- ^ a b c Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. OUP Oxford. p. 280. ISBN 978-0-19-964667-8.
- ^ Averil Cameron (1993). The Later Roman Empire, AD 284-430. Harvard University Press. p. 3.
- ^ Averil Cameron (1993). The Later Roman Empire, AD 284-430. Harvard University Press. p. 4.
- ^ Yann Le Bohec (2013). Imperial Roman Army. Routledge. p. 196. ISBN 9781135955069.
- ^ Patrick J. Geary (2003). The Myth of Nations: The Medieval Origins of Europe. Princeton University Press. p. 81.
- ^ Nic Fields (2008). The Walls of Rome. Bloomsbury USA. p. 12. ISBN 9781846031984.
- ^ a b c Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. Oup USA. p. 177. ISBN 978-0-19-986110-1.
- ^ a b c d e David L. Vagi (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, C. 82 B.C.--A.D. 480: History. Taylor & Francis. p. 398. ISBN 9781579583163.
- ^ Beate Dignas; Engelbert Winter (2007). Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals. Cambridge University Press. p. 159. ISBN 9780521849258.
- ^ Pat Southern (17 November 2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-4411-7351-5.
- ^ Edward Gibbon (2004). The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Wildside Press. p. 501. ISBN 9780809592357.
- ^ Clifford Ando (2012). Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. p. 237. ISBN 9780748620500.
- ^ Lukas De Blois (1976). The Policy of the Emperor Gallienus. BRILL. p. 3. ISBN 9004045082.
- ^ Nathanael J. Andrade (2013). Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World. p. 333. ISBN 9781107012059.
- ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 78. ISBN 0472083155.
- ^ Pat Southern (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. p. 72. ISBN 9781441142481.
- ^ Maurice Sartre (2005). The Middle East Under Rome. p. 354. ISBN 9780674016835.
- ^ a b Pat Southern (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra s Rebel Queen. p. 78. ISBN 9781847250346.
- ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 292. ISBN 978-0-19-100292-2.
- ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 108. ISBN 0472083155.
- ^ Edward Gibbon; Thomas Bowdler (1826). History of the decline and fall of the Roman empire for the use of families and young persons: reprinted from the original text, with the careful omission of all passagers of an irreligious tendency, Volume 1. p. 321.
- ^ George C. Brauer (1975). The Age of the Soldier Emperors: Imperial Rome, A.D. 244-284. Noyes Press. p. 163. ISBN 9780815550365.
- ^ a b c d Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. OUP Oxford. p. 299. ISBN 978-0-19-964667-8.
- ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. University of Michigan Press. p. 114. ISBN 0472083155.
- ^ a b Trevor Bryce (2004). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. OUP Oxford. p. 302. ISBN 978-0-19-100293-9.
- ^ Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. Oup USA. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-19-986110-1.
- ^ Watson, Alaric (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. Routledge. p. 61. ISBN 9781134908158.
- ^ Khaleel Ibrahim Muaikel (1994). Dirasah li-āthār Mintaqat al-Jawf. King Fahd National Library. p. 43. ISBN 9789960000114.
- ^ Fergus Millar (1993). The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337. Harvard University Press. p. 433. ISBN 9780674778863.
- ^ Roxani Eleni Margariti; Adam Sabra; Petra Sijpesteijn (2010). Histories of the Middle East: Studies in Middle Eastern Society, Economy and Law in Honor of A.L. Udovitch. BRILL. p. 148. ISBN 978-9004184275.
- ^ Mohammad Rihan (2014). The Politics and Culture of an Umayyad Tribe: Conflict and Factionalism in the Early Islamic Period. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 28. ISBN 9781780765648.
- ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. OUP Oxford. p. 296. ISBN 978-0-19-964667-8.
- ^ a b Alaric Watson (2014). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 62. ISBN 9781134908158.
- ^ Pat Southern (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. p. 133. ISBN 9781441142481.
- ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 303. ISBN 978-0-19-100293-9.
- ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-19-964667-8.
- ^ Alaric Watson (2014). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 63. ISBN 9781134908158.
- ^ a b c Alaric Watson (2014). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 64. ISBN 9781134908158.
- ^ a b Warwick Ball (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. p. 80. ISBN 9781134823871.
- ^ a b Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-19-986110-1.
- ^ David L. Vagi (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, C. 82 B.C.--A.D. 480: History. p. 365. ISBN 9781579583163.
- ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 307. ISBN 978-0-19-964667-8.
- ^ a b Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 308. ISBN 978-0-19-964667-8.
- ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 71. ISBN 9781134908158.
- ^ a b Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 72. ISBN 9781134908158.
- ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 167. ISBN 0472083155.
- ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 309. ISBN 978-0-19-964667-8.
- ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 74. ISBN 9781134908158.
- ^ John Carne; William Purser (1836). Syria, the Holy Land, Asia Minor, &c. illustrated: In a series of views drawn from nature. Fisher, Son, & Co.; London, Paris, & America. p. 31.
- ^ Pat Southern (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. p. 138. ISBN 9781441142481.
- ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 75. ISBN 9781134908158.
- ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 310. ISBN 978-0-19-964667-8.
- ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 76. ISBN 9781134908158.
- ^ a b Alan Bowman; Peter Garnsey; Averil Cameron (2005). The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337. p. 52. ISBN 9780521301992.
- ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 175. ISBN 0472083155.
- ^ a b Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 77. ISBN 9781134908158.
- ^ a b c Warwick Ball (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. p. 81. ISBN 9781134823871.
- ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 313. ISBN 978-0-19-964667-8.
- ^ Alaric Watson (2014). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 78. ISBN 9781134908158.
- ^ William Ware (1846). Zenobia, Or, The Fall of Palmyra: A Historical Romance in Letters from L. Manlius Piso from Palmyra, to His Friend Marcus Curtius at Rome. p. 242.
- ^ Warwick Ball (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Routledge. p. 81. ISBN 9781134823864.
- ^ a b c Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. Oup USA. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-19-986110-1.
- ^ Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. Oup USA. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-19-986110-1.
- ^ Butcher, Kevin (2003). Roman Syria and the Near East. Getty Publications. p. 60. ISBN 9780892367153.
- ^ a b Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. Routledge. p. 81. ISBN 9781134908158.
- ^ Alan Bowman; Peter Garnsey; Averil Cameron (2005). The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337. Cambridge University Press. p. 515. ISBN 9780521301992.
- ^ Manley, John (2013). The Romans: All That Matters. John Murray Press. p. 15. ISBN 9781444183887.
- ^ a b Christian Sahner (2014). Among the Ruins: Syria Past and Present. Oxford University Press. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-19-025737-8.
Bibliography
- Nakamura, Byron (1993). "Palmyra and the Roman East". Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. 34. Duke University, Department of Classical Studies. ISSN 0017-3916.
- Hitti, Philip K. (2002) . History of The Arabs (10 ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-13032-7.
- Zahrān, Yāsamīn (2003). Zenobia between reality and legend. BAR (British Archaeological Reports) International Series. Vol. 1169. Archaeopress. ISBN 978-1-84171-537-7.
- Whittow, Mark (2010). "The late Roman/early Byzantine Near East". In Robinson, Chase F. (ed.). The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83823-8.
- Ball, Warwick (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-82387-1.
- Smith II, Andrew M. (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-986110-1.
- Millar, Fergus (1993). The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-77886-3.
34°33′36″N 38°16′2″E / 34.56000°N 38.26722°E / 34.56000; 38.26722
Rulers of the Ancient Near East |
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Territories/ dates
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Egypt |
Canaan |
Ebla |
Mari |
Kish/ Assur |
Akshak/ Akkad |
Uruk |
Adab |
Umma
|
Lagash |
Ur |
Elam
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4000–3200 BCE
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Naqada I Naqada II
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Egypt-Mesopotamia relations
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Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE)
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Susa I
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Uruk period (4000–3100 BCE)
(Anu Ziggurat, 4000 BCE)
(Anonymous "King-priests")
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Susa II
(Uruk influence or control)
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3200–3100 BCE
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Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings:
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Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes
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Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash
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3100–2900 BCE
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Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of EgyptNarmer Palette Narmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird
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Canaanites
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Jemdet Nasr period (3100–2900 BCE)
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Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100–2700 BCE)
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2900 BCE
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Second Dynasty of Egypt
Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy
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Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE)
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First Eblaite Kingdom
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First kingdom of Mari
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Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum
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2800 BCE
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Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna
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Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher
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Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta")
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2700 BCE
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Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE)
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|
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Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum
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Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman
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Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")
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Aga of Kish
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Gilgamesh
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Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE)
Indus-Mesopotamia relations
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2600 BCE
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Third Dynasty of Egypt
Djoser
(First Egyptian pyramids) Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni
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Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE)
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Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu
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Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim
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Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum
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Lagash En-hegal Lugal- shaengur
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Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug
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Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun
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Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu
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2575 BCE
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Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu
Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis
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Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk
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2500 BCE
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Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE)
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Second kingdom of Mari
Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan
Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi
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Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba♀
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Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu
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Uruk II dynasty Ensha- kushanna
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Mug-si
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Umma I dynasty
Pabilgagaltuku
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Lagash I dynasty
Ur-Nanshe
Akurgal
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A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu
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Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur
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2450 BCE
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Fifth Dynasty of Egypt
Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas
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Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik
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Ush Enakalle
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Elamite invasions (3 kings)
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Shushun- tarana Napilhush
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2425 BCE
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Kun-Damu
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Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam)
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2400 BCE
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Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu
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Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa
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Urur
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Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi
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E-iginimpa'e Meskigal
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Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun)
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Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi
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Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II
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Kiku-siwe-tempti
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2380 BCE
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Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah
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Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world"
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2370 BCE
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Isar-Damu
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Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari
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Invasion by Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter
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Ukush
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Lugalanda Urukagina
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Luh-ishan
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2350 BCE
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Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin
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Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer)
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2340 BCE
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Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE)
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Akkadian Empire
Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu
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Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani
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2250 BCE
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Naram-Sin
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Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians)
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2200 BCE
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First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare
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Second Eblaite Kingdom
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Third kingdom of Mari (Shakkanakku dynasty)
Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians)
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Shar-Kali-Sharri
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Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul
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Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir
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Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku
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Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak
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2150 BCE
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Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut
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Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE)
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Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum
Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin
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Gutian dynasty (21 kings)
La-erabum Si'um
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Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu
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Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians)
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Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani
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Tirigan
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2125 BCE
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Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare
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Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal
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2100 BCE
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(Vassals of UR III)
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Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar (Vassals of Ur III)
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Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin
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2025-1763 BCE
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Amorite invasions
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Ibbi-Sin
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Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty)
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Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV
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Third Eblaite Kingdom (Amorites) Ibbit-Lim
Immeya Indilimma
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(Amorite Shakkanakkus) Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (...)
Lim Dynasty of Mari (Amorites) Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu)
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Old Assyria Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II
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Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu
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Sukkalmah dynasty
Siwe-Palar-Khuppak
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Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀
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1800–1595 BCE
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Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt
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Abraham (Biblical) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon
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Yamhad (Yamhad dynasty) (Amorites)
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Old Assyria
(Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi
(Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE)
Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi
(Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II
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First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana
Early Kassite rulers
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Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil
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Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty
Abydos Dynasty
Seventeenth Dynasty
|
Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi
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Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar
|
1531–1155 BCE
|
TutankhamunNew Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I
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Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi
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Middle Elamite period
(1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha
|
Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III
|
Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb
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Hittite Empire
Ugarit
|
Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀
|
Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte
|
1155–1025 BCE
|
Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt
Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI
Third Intermediate Period
Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II
|
Phoenicia Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon
Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon
|
Syro-Hittite states
|
Middle Assyria Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II
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Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur
|
Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)
|
1025–934 BCE
|
Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli
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911–745 BCE
|
Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV
Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini
Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef
|
Kingdom of Samaria
Kingdom of Judah
|
Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V
|
Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri
|
Humban-Tahrid dynasty
Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III
|
745–609 BCE
|
Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt Taharqa("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun
|
Neo-Assyrian Empire
(Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II
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Assyrian conquest of Egypt
|
Assyrian conquest of Elam
|
626–539 BCE
|
Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III
|
Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus
|
Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madyes Cyaxares Astyages
|
539–331 BCE
|
Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt)
|
Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon
|
Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III
|
Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
|
Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt
|
331–141 BCE
|
Argead dynasty and Ptolemaic Egypt Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀
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Hellenistic Period Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from BabylonArgead dynasty: Alexander III Philip III Alexander IV Antigonid dynasty: Antigonus I Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes
|
141–30 BCE
|
Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra♀ Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias
|
Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus
|
Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I
|
30 BCE–116 CE
|
Roman Empire
|
(Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt
|
Judea
|
Syria
|
116–117 CE
|
Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan
|
Parthamaspates of Parthia
|
117–224 CE
|
Syria Palaestina
|
Province of Mesopotamia
|
Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV
|
224–270 CE
|
Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm
|
270–273 CE
|
Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia♀ Antiochus
|
273–395 CE
|
Roman Empire
|
Province of Egypt
|
Syria Palaestina
|
Syria
|
Province of Mesopotamia
|
395–618 CE
|
Byzantine Empire
|
Byzantine Egypt
|
Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda
|
Byzantine Syria
|
Byzantine Mesopotamia
|
618–628 CE
|
(Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz
|
Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II
|
628–641 CE
|
Byzantine Empire
|
Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran♀ Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht♀ Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh
|
Byzantine Egypt
|
Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda
|
Byzantine Syria
|
Byzantine Mesopotamia
|
639–651 CE
|
Muslim conquest of Egypt
|
Muslim conquest of the Levant
|
Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia
|
Chronology of the Neolithic period
|
Rulers of Ancient Central Asia
|
- ^ Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional.
- ^ Hallo, W.; Simpson, W. (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49.
- ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS.
- ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2.
- ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7.
- ^ a b c Per Sumerian King List
- ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4.
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